In the mid to late 19^th century, Alexandria, Virginia was a popular location, with both a large railroad system and plenty of waterfront for ships to bring people and cargo. Alexandria had a lot of people traveling to and from the city. As a sizable commercial hub, it also supported prostitution.[i]

One of the immigrants that decided to live in Alexandria was an English immigrant named Ann White. She was listed as a 50 year old homeowner in the 1860 U.S. Census.[ii] She owned $1300 in real estate, but no slaves. She was the second highest property holder in her block, only beaten by another woman running a boarding house. White was not married and neither was anyone else listed in her house. It appears that her home may have been a mix of a brothel and a boarding house. At the time of the 1860 U.S. Census, White had two women, both of whom worked as prostitutes, and a sailor living with her.[iii] Her house was located in the 300 block of North Lee Street.[iv]

The house’s location was a great place for White to host a brothel, or a boarding house that doubled as a brothel. The house was a mere block or two from the water’s edge and local hotels, making it very accessible to sailors and other visitors.[v]

The two prostitutes living with White were Ann Jones and Margaret McCline/McCuin. Margaret’s surname changes based on the database used but she is consistently in the house. She was 23 years old, while. Jones was 34 in 1860. Neither Jones nor McCline were literate. McCline was an Irish immigrant but Jones was from Maryland.[vi] Perhaps both came from poor backgrounds, and were never able to have schooling so they turned to one of the few jobs available to women.

Jeremiah Robb (sometimes Robbs) is listed at the house in the 1860 U.S. Census, but doesn’t appear in the 1870 US census.[vii] It is unclear what connection Robb had to White. He was listed as a waterman, and perhaps was living there for a short period that happened to coincide with the census.[viii] He could have also worked for White part time; oftentimes, female brothel owners needed a male bouncer in case clients became rowdy.

Why White chose to run a brothel is not clear, but she did well and made a good profit doing so.[ix]

[i] A Brief History of Alexandria, City of Alexandria, VA, accessed September 29, 2016, https://www.alexandriava.gov/.

[ii] 1860 U.S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Alexandria, Virginia, Sheet 68, household of Ann White, line 27, digital image, accessed September 29, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[iii] “Social Groups in Alexandria” Prostitution,” Voting Viva Voce, last modified 2016, accessed Sept. 22, 2016,  http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/.

[iv] Ibid.

[v] Ibid.

[vi] 1860 U.S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Alexandria, Virginia, Sheet 68, Ann Jones and Margaret McCline in the household of Ann White, line 28-29, digital image, accessed September 29, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[vii] 1860 U.S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Alexandria, Virginia, Sheet 68, household of Ann White, line 27, digital image, accessed September 29, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[viii] 1860 U.S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Alexandria, Virginia, Sheet 68, household of Ann White, line 30, digital image, accessed September 29, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[ix] “Social Groups in Alexandria” Prostitution,” Voting Viva Voce, last modified 2016, accessed Sept. 22, 2016,  http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/.

I was immediately drawn to the Ratcliffe family after examining various English immigrants that our class examined in the 1860 and 1870 U.S. Censuses for the City of Alexandria. I was intrigued by the fact that Ann Ratcliffe’s occupation listed in the 1870 U.S. Census was “doctress” because not many women were in the medical field during the 19th century.[1] She had $600 of property while her son, William, was not worth anything although he worked as a moulder or brick maker.[1] 

Ann Ratcliffe was an English immigrant born in 1805. Ann was married to a RB (Robert) Ratcliffe, who, based on information from the 1850 U.S. Census, was a carpenter from England worth $500.[2] At the time the census was conducted, Ratcliffe’s occupation (if she had one) was not listed; she had three children total, all born in Washington, D.C. Richard was born in 1830, Margaret in 1835, and William in 1838.[3] Unfortunately, I was unable to find more information on Ratcliffe’s children other than William. [4]

William Ratcliffe later married Ann E. Nightingale on July 15, 1868.[5] Together, William and Ann had one child, a daughter named Lizzy Bell, born in November 1869 by 1870. [6]

William and Ann Ratcliffe continued to live in Alexandria in the same home on the corner of Wilkes and South Fairfax Streets. William died at the age of 54 on April 12, 1894, while his mother’s death is unknown. His funeral was held in his home the Sunday following his death.[7]

Home of the Ratcliffes or William and Ann “Radcliff.” Don DeBats, Voting Viva Voce: Unlocking the Social Logic of Past Politics, University of Virginia, accessed September 21, 2016, http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/.

William Ratcliffe’s Death Noted in the Alexandria Gazette. “Virginia Gazette and Virginia Advertiser,” Alexandria Gazette, April 12, 1894. Accessed September 21, 2016, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress.

As we can examine, Ann Ratcliffe was not a typical woman of her time. She was the only female physician/surgeon of her time in the City of Alexandria, showing viewers today how important she was in her community. After her husband passed away in 1851, she had to work to continue life without her husband.  As stated above, the date of her death is unknown. According to Charlotte Erickson’s book, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaption of English and Scottish Immigrants in Nineteenth-century America, a wife was extremely important to male immigrants in the United States and the mid-19th century. [8] Without Ann, the Ratcliffe family would not have had a source of income because William did not have a solid source of income according to the 1870 census in the City of Alexandria.

[1] 1870 U.S. Census (Population Schedule). Alexandria, Virginia, William and Ann Ratcliffe, line 26 and 29, digital image, accessed September, 21 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[2] 1850 U.S. Census (Population Schedule). Alexandria, Virginia, RB Ratcliffe, line 28,  digital image, accessed September, 21 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[3] 1850 U.S. Census (Population Schedule). Alexandria, Virginia, Richard, Margaret, and William Ratcliffe, lines 30-32, digital image, accessed September, 21 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[4] 1870 U.S. Census (Population Schedule). Alexandria, Virginia, William and Ann Ratcliffe, line 26 and 29, digital image, accessed September, 21 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[5] Marriage Certificate, Alexandria, Virginia, William Ratcliffe and Ann Eliz’H (Elizabeth) Nightingill (Nightengale) Ancestry.com. September, 21 2016. http://www.ancestry.com/inst/discoveries/PfRecord?emailId=N-08e4bb45-f58c-41e4-a7d1-c310b4780848&collectionId=60214&recordId=19650&ahsht=2016-09-23T02:21:33&language=en-US&ahsh=a68fc4f13929fdb5db60a94cd50bef64

[6] 1870 U.S. Census (Population Schedule). Alexandria, Virginia, Lizzy Bell Ratcliffe, line 28, digital image, accessed September, 21 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[7] “Virginia Gazette and Virginia Advertiser” Alexandria gazette, April 12, 1894. Accessed September 21, 2016, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress.

 

[8] Charlotte Erickson, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaption of English and Scottish Immigrants in Nineteenth-century America (Coral Gables, FL: University of Florida Press, 1972), 56.

English immigration is prevalent in the 19^th century, even in Alexandria, Virginia. Occupations vary among these immigrants and high salaries were not common because agrarian work was the most prevalent job. Therefore an English immigrant grocer claiming thousands of dollars was an interesting find. The 1860 United States Census lists Thomas Davy, a seventy-year old, white, male grocer in Alexandria. Davy was born in England and married to Susan who was born in Virginia.[i] His assets total around $20,000.[ii] It is interesting to discover an English immigrant with that amount of money in Alexandria, living off of a grocery business. The image below names the members of the Davy household: Thomas Davy, M. Lagecubell, Susan Davy, E. Lagecubell, Davy Slave A, and Davy Slave B.[iii]

(Photo Courtesy of Don DeBats, “Voting Viva Voce,” The Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, n.d. Web, <http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu)

This image also names Davy was an active voter in Alexandria, usually voting for candidates in opposition to the Democrats.[iv] Davy is listed as a dedicated member of the Trinity Methodist church.[v] From his headstone, it is known that he had been a member of the Methodist Church for sixty-three years.[vi] This demonstrates Davy’s dedication to his community; he probably had no intentions of returning to England.

In the 1850 U.S. Census of Alexandria, it names Martha Lugenbille and James Lugenbille, the daughter and son-in-law of Thomas Davy, shown in the image below.[vii]

U.S. Census Bureau, “Alexandria Census 1850.”

James Lugenbille was a thirty-year old white, male born in Massachusetts who was a physician. Lugenbille lived in the home of the Davys.[viii] Lugenbille, however, did not appear on the 1860 U.S. Census for Alexandria. According to his headstone, Lugenbille died on September 22, 1857, but the cause of death is unknown.[ix] His wife Martha remained living in her father’s home, and she acquired all of her husband’s assets as shown in the 1870 U.S. Census for Alexandria inserted below.[x]

U.S. Census Bureau, “Alexandria Census 1870.”

Two more Davy household members listed in the 1870 U.S. Census are, “Caroline Jackson” and “Virginia Jackson.” These women are labeled as “Domestic Servants” and demarcated as “M” meaning of “mulatto.”[xi] Davy was known to own and rent slaves prior to the Civil War.[xii]

English immigrants to the United States in the nineteenth century consisted mostly of farmers operating on land purchased with money brought from England.[xiii] The main goal of these English immigrants was to gain economic independence and expand their wealth.[xiv] The Davys fit this model. Many other English immigrant families working in Alexandria were financially successful in the 19^th century, but the Davy family was especially interesting.

Thomas Davy’s Headstone. (Photo Courtesy of findagrave.com)

Notes

[i] U.S. Census Bureau, “Alexandria Census 1860.”

[ii]Ibid.

[iii]Don DeBats, “Voting Viva Voce,” Search for Individual People in Alexandria (as of 1860), The Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, n.d. Web, <http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/node/14?name=Davy+Thomas&sex=&race=&bg=&data_set=alex_people&contains=1>.

[iv]Ibid.

[v] Ibid.

[vi] Brian S., “Thomas Davy (1791-1876),” Find a Grave , N.p, 7 Jan. 2015, Web, http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=141033263.

[vii] U.S. Census Bureau, “Alexandria Census 1850.”

[viii] Ibid.

[ix] Brian S., “James Lugenbille (1819-1857),” Find a Grave, N.p, 7 Jan. 2015, Web, http://www.findagrave.om/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=141033263.

[x] U.S. Census Bureau, “Alexandria Census 1870.”

[xi] Ibid.

[xii] Don DeBats, “Voting Viva Voce,” Search for Individual People in Alexandria (as of 1860), The Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities, n.d. Web, <http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/node/14?name=Davy+Thomas&sex=&race=&bg=&data_set=alex_people&contains=1>.

[xiii] Charlotte Erickson, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaption of English and Scottish Immigrants in Nineteenth-century America (Coral Gables, FL: U of Miami, 1972), 25.

[xiv] Ibid, 27.

While combing through both the 1860 and 1870 U.S. Census, I came across various pieces of information about William Cogan. In the 1860 U.S. Census, I was able to locate him, a then twenty-nine-year-old gas fitter. Cogan’s combined value of property in 1860 was $4,500.[1] In Alexandria’s local newspaper, The Alexandria Gazette, I was able to locate an advertisement for Cogan’s gas fitting enterprise dated January 24, 1862, which meant that he continued working throughout the Civil War in Union-occupied Alexandria.[2] Additionally, according to the Voting Viva Voce website, I located Cogan’s home in Alexandria and other personal information. According to the site, Cogan did not own or rent slaves.[3] The 1860 census also lists William’s wife, Virginia, who was born in the United States.[4]

 

To track possible changes, I also looked at the 1870 U.S. Census. When looking at the 1870 U.S. census in Alexandria, William Cogan was listed again. His job is now listed as Gas & Steam fitter. Where in 1860 his property value was $4,500, in 1870 that value was risen to $10,000.[5]

Cogan was born in the year 1828 in London. The gravestone at Presbyterian Cemetery in Alexandria, Virginia reads, “In memory of/my husband/William Cogan…aged 60 years/native of London/England.”[6] Virginia passed away on December 22nd, 1912 in her house on 1012 Prince Street in Alexandria.[7]

 

[1] 1860 U. S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, William Cogan, digital image, accessed September 20, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[2] “The Local news,” The Alexandria Gazette, 24 Jan. 1862.

[3] Voting Viva Voce. University of Virginia. http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/.

[4] 1860 U. S. Census (Population Schedule),   Alexandria, Virginia, William Cogan, digital image, accessed September 20, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[5] 1870 U. S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, William Cogan, digital image, accessed September 20, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[6] Ancestry.com. U.S., Find a Grave Index, 1600s-Current [database on-line]. Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, Inc., 2012.

[7] “Mrs. Virginia Cogan Dead,” The Washington Post Dec. 22, 1912.

In Invisible Immigrants: The Adaptation of English and Scottish Immigrants in 19th-Century America (1990), Charlotte Erickson extracts excerpts from letters written by English immigrants who entered the U.S. throughout the nineteenth century.[i] Through these letters, Erickson explains that many English immigrants left comfortable hometowns in hopes of increasing their standard of living in the U.S., like owning a home or farm instead of leasing one, or simply just boosting their family’s social status and wealth. After reviewing the data contained in the 1860 and 1870 U.S. Census records for Alexandria, Virginia, one English immigrant in particular stood out from the rest, and further inquiry into his background tends to support Erickson’s argument.

William Gregory III was either an English-speaking Scotsman or a recent English arrival to southern Scotland who likely came to the U.S. to expand his family’s business and affluence. Gregory was born on January 3, 1789, in Kilmarnock, Scotland.[ii] Nearly ten months later, on November 17, 1789, Gregory was baptized in the St. James Anglican Church in Westminster, England.[iii] His father, William Gregory II, owned a woolen factory in Kilmarnock.[iv] When Gregory was eighteen, he immigrated to Alexandria, Virginia, and worked as a clerk in Scotsman Robert McCrea’s dry goods store that was located on King Street.[v] He actively participated in the War of 1812 by serving with the Alexandria Blues, and his unit fought in the Battle of the White House in 1814. [vi] After the war, Gregory prospered as a dry goods merchant and achieved considerable wealth. Though he retired from the merchant business in 1847, he eventually became “the president of the Alexandria branch of the Farmers’ Bank of Virginia, a position he retained until the bank closed in 1866.”[vii] As president, Gregory’s name appeared in the Merchant’s and Banker’s Almanac for 1853.[viii]

Records indicate that Gregory lived in the City of Alexandria from the time he arrived at the age of eighteen until his death in 1875. He also seemed to have integrated into the American society quite well. For example, in addition to his service during the War of 1812, Gregory signed an Oath of Allegiance that swore allegiance to the Union during the time of the U.S. Civil War.[ix]

(Data Courtesy of the Alexandria Library)

Analysis of the available marriage and U.S. Census records reflect that Gregory was married twice, had ten children, and that he was a wealthy slave owner. Gregory married his first wife, Margaret Douglas Bartleman, on December 2, 1822, and they had five children together.[x] According to her headstone, Margaret died in Barbados on June 19, 1833.[xi] Gregory appeared in the U.S. Census records as a resident of Alexandria three times, and each of these documents provides additional interesting facts about his life. According to the 1850 Census, Gregory’s real estate was valued at $21,000 and he had nine people in his family that were living in his home, one of which is his second wife, Mary.[xii] Like Margaret, she and Gregory had five children together.[xiii] An additional available document, the 1850 Census Slave Schedule, reported that Gregory owned two female slaves who were aged sixteen and eighteen.[xiv] By the 1860 Census, Gregory had six family members and three slaves living under his roof [xv], and the combined value of his property was $110,000.[xvi]  Finally, in the 1870 Census, Gregory only had five family members living with him but his combined property value increased to $130,000.[xvii] Based on this data, it is reasonable to infer that the U.S. Civil War and subsequent emancipation of slaves did not negatively impact Gregory’s wealth.

 

(Documents Courtesy of Ancestry.com)

A variety of passenger manifests reveal that Gregory and his children were quite the ocean travelers, and they suggest that he did not sever ties with his family in Scotland. Two passenger lists depict that the Gregorys traveled from both Barbados and Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Alexandria via the Schooner Velocity in September of 1833.[xviii] These documents substantiate the death date and burial location of Gregory’s first wife, Margaret. Over the course of the next three years, other passenger manifests indicate that the Gregorys traveled to New York from Liverpool, England, on several different ships, including the Oxford on June 8, 1840, the Independence on November 2, 1841, and the Talbot on May 18, 1842.[xix]

 

(Documents Courtesy of Ancestry.com)

Over the span of his long life, Gregory owned multiple expensive properties in Alexandria. Later known as the “William Gregory Building,” Gregory owned a structure on 400-02 King Street, but it was demolished in 1968 under the Gadsby Urban Renewal Project.[xx] The second “William Gregory Building” was located on 404-06 King Street. Gregory also owned another property called the “Old Leadbeater House,”[xxi] which was located at 329 North Washington Street.[xxii]

According to Boyd’s Business Directory of the Cities of Alexandria, Georgetown, and Washington (1875), Gregory lived at 87 North Washington Street in 1875, the most prestigious street address in the city.[xxiii] He died in Alexandria on July 13, 1875,[xxiv] and was buried in the Gregory family plot located within the Presbyterian Cemetery.[xxv]

(Created by Dino Reschke Using GoogleMaps)

[i] Charlotte Erickson, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaptation of English and Scottish Immigrants in 19th-Century America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990).

[ii] Scotland, Select Births and Baptisms, 1564-1950, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com.

[iii] England & Wales, Christening Index, 1530-1980, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com.

[iv] “Historic American Buildings Survey: William Gregory Building,” accessed September 22, 2016, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/master/pnp/habshaer/va/va0100/va0116/data/va0116data.pdf.

[v] Ibid.

[vi] Ibid.; Amy Bertsch and Lance Mallamo, “Out of the Attic: A Dyed-in-the-Wool Alexandrian,” Alexandria Times, May 1, 2014.

[vii] “Historic American Buildings Survey: William Gregory Building,” accessed September 22, 2016, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/master/pnp/habshaer/va/va0100/va0116/data/va0116data.pdf.

[viii]Merchant’s and Banker’s Almanac for 1853, accessed September 22, 2016, https://books.google.com/books?id=EmxQAQAAMAAJ&pg=PP8&lpg=PP8&dq=Merchant%E2%80%99s+and+Banker%E2%80%99s+Almanac+for+1853&source=bl&ots=yssX292IuL&sig=T1U-UDEiSpSLv5HUV3M6CS6tJ28&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiMq-j3vqXPAhWGXh4KHR_5CBIQ6AEIJzAC#v=onepage&q&f=false.

[ix] Alexandria Library, “Oath of Allegiance in Virginia, 1862-1865,” accessed September 22, 2016, https://alexlibraryva.org/client/en_US/home/?rm=OATH+OF+ALLEGI0%7C%7C%7C1%7C%7C%7C0%7C%7C%7Ctrue.

[x] “Margaret Douglas Bartleman,” accessed September 22, 2016,  http://person.ancestrylibrary.com/tree/102088298/person/100026340210/facts; Amy Bertsch and Lance Mallamo, “Out of the Attic: A Dyed-in-the-Wool Alexandrian,” Alexandria Times, May 1, 2014.

[xi] Find A Grave, “Margaret Douglas Bartleman Gregory,” accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=116200071.

[xii] 1850 United States Federal Census, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com.

[xiii] “Historic American Buildings Survey: William Gregory Building,” accessed September 22, 2016, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/master/pnp/habshaer/va/va0100/va0116/data/va0116data.pdf.

[xiv] 1850 U.S. Federal Census – Slave Schedules, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com.

[xv] 1860 U.S. Federal Census – Slave Schedules, accessed September 29, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com; University of Virginia, “Voting Viva Voce: Unlocking the Social Logic of Past Politics,” Database Queries: Individuals in Alexandria; William Gregory, accessed September 29, 2016, http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/node/14name=William%20Gregory&sex=&race=&bg=4&data_set=alex_people&contains=1.

[xvi] Population Schedule of the Eighth Census of the United States, 1860, Virginia, accessed September 22, 2016, https://archive.org/stream/populationschedu1331unix#page/n409/mode/2up.

[xvii] Population Schedules of the Ninth Census of the United States, 1870, Virginia, accessed September 22, 2016, https://archive.org/stream/populationschedu1632unit#page/n223/mode/2up.

[xviii] Atlantic Ports, Gulf Coasts, and Great Lakes Passenger Lists, Roll 1: 1820-1871, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com; U.S., Atlantic Ports Passenger Lists, 1820-1873 and 1893-1959, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com.

[xix] New York, Passenger Lists, 1820-1957, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com.

[xx] “Historic American Buildings Survey: William Gregory Building,” accessed September 22, 2016, http://lcweb2.loc.gov/master/pnp/habshaer/va/va0100/va0116/data/va0116data.pdf; Amy Bertsch and Lance Mallamo, “Out of the Attic: A Bland Building with Rich Commercial History,” Alexandria Times, July 17, 2014; Amy Bertsch and Lance Mallamo, “Out of the Attic: A Historic Property with A Bright Future,” Alexandria Times, January 8, 2015.

[xxi] “Gregory or ‘Old Leadbeater House,’” accessed September 22, 2016, http://cdn.loc.gov/master/pnp/habshaer/va/va0100/va0118/data/va0118data.pdf.

[xxii] University of Virginia, “Voting Via Voce: Unlocking the Social Logic of Past Politics,” accessed September 22, 2016, http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/node/14name=William%20Gregory&sex=&race=&bg=&data_set=alex_people&contains=1.

[xxiii] U.S. City Directories, 1822-1995, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com.

[xxiv] Virginia, Deaths and Burials Index, 1853-1917, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com.

[xxv] Find A Grave, “William Gregory,” accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&amp;GRid=116250241&amp;ref=acom.

Throughout Invisible Immigrants by Charlotte Erickson, I became increasingly curious about English immigrants who went into professional and clerical occupations and became town dwellers (as opposed to rural or industrial occupations). According to Erickson, these immigrants “broke more ties in emigrating”[i] than other English immigrants and neither held professional qualifications nor white collar jobs prior to emigrating.[ii] One English immigrant in particular that fits this category is Philip Park. I found him first using census data sorted by occupation and value of property. I was looking for someone like Park, an English immigrant who holds a profession and has some property. He appears on the U.S. Census in 1860 as a 38 year old plumber with a property value of $150.[iii] He again appears in the 1870 U.S. Census with an increased value of $4,400 and alongside his wife, Catharine, and his three daughters, Virginia, Gertrude, and Catharine.[iv]

This rise in wealth had to be addressed, but first I had to get a better understanding of Park and his family. Using Ancestry.com, I found that he and Catharine were married in 1856 in Alexandria.[v] This means Philip came to America a single man, which, according to Erickson, is true for other English immigrants entering professional positions. His three children were all born in the United States.[vi] In Figure 1, from Don De Bats project “Voting Viva Voce,” we can see where Philip and Catharine Park lived on the corner of Prince and S. Pitt Street in front of the bank and across the street from St. Paul’s Episcopal Church.[vii] He lived in the middle of town, which is where he also conducted his business.  Considering his wealth and advertisements in the Alexandria Gazette (see Figure 2), he was a well-known plumber.[ix]

Figure 1

(Courtesy of Don DeBats, Voting Viva Voce: Unlocking the Social Logic of Past Politics, University of Virginia, accessed September 20, 2016, http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/.)

Figure 2

(Courtesy of “Philip Park, Practical Plumber” Alexandria Gazette, July 14, 1868. Accessed September 21, 2016, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress.)

There is a lot we cannot understand about Philip Park and his family due to the limitations of data. However, as typical in history, there are things about Park that can be explained although not proven. Park’s considerable rise in wealth between 1860 and 1870, from $150 to $4,400, is striking. In comparison to other business owners on the 1860 U.S. Census, Park held much more property value in 1870.  I tried finding him in tax records or any mention of his involvement with the Union in newspapers and I could not. However, it is possible that his ties to the Union, if they existed, allowed him to be successful in a time of war.

[i] Charlotte Erickson, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaptation of English and Scottish Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century America (Coral Gables: University of Miami Press, 1972), 395.

[ii] Ibid.

[iii] 1860. U. S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria,Virginia, Philip Park, line 17, digital image, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[iv] 1870. U. S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Philip Park, line 7, digital image, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[v] Ancestry.com. “Virginia, Select Marriages, 1785-1940,” Provo, UT, USA: Ancestry.com Operations, http://search.ancestrylibrary.com/cgi-bin/sse.dll?viewrecord=1&r=5542&db=FS1VirginiaMarriages&indiv=try&h=4208629.

[vi] 1870. U. S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Philip Park, line 7, digital image, accessed September 22, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[vii] Don DeBats, Voting Viva Voce: Unlocking the Social Logic of Past Politics, University of Virginia, accessed September 20, 2016, http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/.

[viii] “Philip Park, Practical Plumber” Alexandria Gazette, July 14, 1868. Accessed September 21, 2016, Chronicling America: Historic American Newspapers, Library of Congress.

One migrant community in the United States who not many people think of as migrants are the English.  Their help in colonizing and founding colonies in North America has made their continued migration over the centuries nearly imperceptible. To understand these invisible immigrants, I used the 1860 U.S. Census to investigate a family of English immigrants and observe how they integrated into their new home. One such family were the Bells. Robert and Mary Greenhalgh Bell, both English immigrants, were wedded and had their first child by the winter of 1832.  They had nine children total.[1] Also included in the Bell family was Robert’s 90-year-old mother, Elizabeth Bell, who migrated from England and lived as a dependent of Robert.[2] This structure gives us an idea of how the households of English migrants would have been organized–a couple who either married in England or the U.S. and created a household, that included possible three generations and extended kin.

The patriarch of the family, Robert Bell Sr., seemed to have integrated quite thoroughly, participating in many facets of American life such as business, church, community, and politics. Robert was deeply involved in his community.  He acted as a member of the vestry and the superintendent for the preschool at St. Paul’s Episcopal Church in Alexandria.[3] Robert was also an active voter who participated in elections, both national and local.[4] This community and political activity illustrates how some English immigrants quickly found their own niche in American society.    

As a businessman, Robert was a successful bookseller and stationer, being one of the city’s prominent merchants of books and educational supplies since the early 1840’s.[5] As an English migrant, Robert sold many of his items in advertisements using British provenances, such as “EXCELSIOR SCHOOL PENS” manufactured in Birmingham and religious lectures from Liverpool.[6] At the time of the 1860 U.S. Census, Robert’s wealth was recorded as $22,000, a very handsome sum for the time and is an indicator that–at least this English immigrant–found little trouble in adapting to his new surroundings.[7]

Another member of the Bell family who played an active role in the community was Robert’s son, Robert Jr. Robert Bell Jr., a first generation American, followed his father in many ways, voting for the same candidate, taking the same profession, and going to the same church as his father.[8] One area in which Robert Jr. and his father differ was the ownership of slaves. According to the census, Robert Bell Jr. owned a female mulatto slave. It is not clear whether Robert Bell Sr. did not own sells because he disagreed with the practice or that he felt that he could not afford one.

From the example of Robert Bell and his family, one can see how an English immigrant family is structured and how they became involved in their community. Within one generation, the Bell family established themselves economically and politically in their community and their new country. This integration reflects the ease with which many English immigrants found adjusting to life in the United States; without a language barrier, culture shock or radical division, integration for English immigrants came easier than for other migrants.

[1] 1860 U.S. Federal Census, Alexandria, Virginia, sheet no. 7, Robert and Mary Greenhalgh Bell & Family, line 3-14, digital image, accessed September 29, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/. 

[2] Ibid.

[3] Harold W. Hurst, Alexandria on the Potomac: The Portrait of an Antebellum Community (Lanham, MD:University Press of America 1991), 76.

[4] Voting Viva Voce,  http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/node/14?name=robert%20bell&sex=&race=&bg=&data_set=alex_people&contains=1 (accessed 9/27/16).

[5] Hurst, 22, 77.

[6] Alexandria Gazette, Volume 61, Number 63, March 14, 1860. A1.

[7]1860 U.S. Federal Census, Alexandria, Virginia, sheet no. 7, Robert and Mary Greenhalgh Bell & Family, line 3-14, digital image, accessed September 29, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[8] 1850 U.S. Federal Census,  Alexandria, Virginia, Cecilia Nelson, line 41, digital image, accessed September 29, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/. 

 

The prevailing image of immigrants to the United States in the 19th-century has often been one of people fleeing poverty and tyranny in Europe and seeking opportunity in the U.S. After studying detailed U.S. census data, English immigrant James Green of Alexandria, Virginia emerged as someone I wanted to investigate further. Green’s wealth and property made him an outlier among his fellow English immigrants, many of whom wanted to buy land and pursue farming in the Midwest.  They were not poor, but did not have the assets that Green had.

James Green was born in the city of Sheffield in southern Yorkshire, England to William and Mary Green on November 24, 1801.  We know nothing about his childhood or how he came to reside in the United States.  In 1823, he appears in the City of Alexandria according to records on Ancestry.com at the age of 22. Soon, he married Jane Muir on November 21, 1825 in the District of Columbia. Presumably, the Green’s were a hard working, close-knit, family consisting of James and Jane along with nine children (their daughter Alice Green died on March 17, 1860, at the age of fourteen).[1]

In 1847, James Green purchased three-quarters of an acre from the estate of a Scottish merchant, John Carlyle, sold by his heirs after his death. Green completed the sale with the purchase of the actual Carlyle home in 1848, converting it to the Mansion House Hotel, one of the largest and most luxurious hotels on the East Coast. In consulting Charlotte Erickson’s Invisible Immigrants, Green fits the last of the three groups that she analyzes–professionals and artisans.[2] Union troops occupied the City of Alexandria in May of 1861 and took possession of the Green’s hotel for a hospital, evicting the family by November.[3] The Union Army  offered him a sizable rent for his property, but only if Green agreed to take the Oath of Allegiance to pledge his loyalty to the Union.[4] Green never appears on the loyalty oath list and to date the rent remains unpaid. [5]

Don Debat’s website, Voting Viva Voce, shows that prior to Union occupation the hotel was teeming with energy. In addition to the family members, there were a number of borders, domestic servants, and slaves housed there. Slave schedules provided by ancestry.com confirm Green owned one slave and fifteen others were rented by him to do the work of the hotel. [6]

The marriage of James and Jane lasted 54 years until her passing on March of 1880.  James died six months thereafter. The two rest peacefully together in Ivy Hill Cemetery in Alexandria, Virginia.

Photo courtesy Ancestory.com

By relative James Green residing in Georgia, shared 21 December 2014. [10]

Researching English immigration has expanded the narrative away from the one-size fits all model that is often viewed through the lens of American exceptionalism. In the case of English immigrants, they were looking to improve their economic situation by coming to the United States as opposed to fleeing tyranny or poverty.

[1] Voting Viva Voce | Social Logic. Accessed September 28, 2016. http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/

[2] Charlotte Erickson, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaptation of English and Scottish Immigrants in Nineteenth-Century America   (Coral Gables: University of Miami Press, 1972), 7.

[3] Henry B. Whittington Diary, Accession #11, Alexandria Library, Local History/Special Collections. Alexandria, VA.

[4] Ibid.

[5] Ibid.

[6] Voting Viva Voce | Social Logic. Accessed September 28, 2016. http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/; 1860 U.S. Federal Census (Slave Schedule), Provo, UT, USA, James Green, lines 1-18 digital image accessed September 27, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

[7] 1860 U.S. Federal Census, Provo, UT, USA, James Green, lines 1-18 digital image accessed September 27, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

 

 

 

 

 

 

As Charlotte Erikson discusses in her book, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaption of English and Scottish Immigrants in Nineteenth Century America, mostly English immigrants with professions or artisanal skills settled in cities.[1] According to the 1860 U.S. Cenus, William Cogan was one such immigrant who made a life for himself in Alexandria, Virginia. Cogan was listed as a twenty-nine year old gas fitter, with a property value of $4,500.[2] He was married to twenty-three year old Virginian named Virginia Barton with whom he had three children: Virginia, John, and William.[3] In addition, according to Don DeBats’s Voting Viva Voce project, Cogan was an independent head of household owning his own home, and was financially well-off.  His household was in the next to top category for both declared and taxable wealth[4].

Upon further research, Cogan was named on the passenger manifest list for General Victoria (unable to determine if the ship was British or American) for the departure leaving London and arriving in New York City on May 28, 1845.[5] He was 15 years old at the time. Cogan does not show up in many archival records until his marriage certificate to Virginia Barton on October 4, 1853, in Alexandria.[6] Cogan and his wife remained in Alexandria through the duration of their marriage although they moved around the city. What is interesting is that in different censuses and city directories, the family was listed as living at different addresses. According to DeBats’s Voting Viva Voce project, they lived at 38 South Pitt Street.[7] In 1880, they lived on 115 East Royal Street.[8] In 1900, Virginia was a widower; however, she and her eleven children lived on King Street[9].  In 1912, according to the city directory, Virginia and her children then lived on 1012 Prince Street[10]. One possible explanation for the family’s constant moving could be that the family was continually growing and was looking for more adequate housing or improved housing.

The most intriguing aspect of the Cogan family’s lives gleaned from the census data and other archival sources was that the Cogans did not lose money during the American Civil War. Instead, Cogan actually increased his wealth by a significant amount. As mentioned previously, the 1860 U.S. Census listed him as having a property value of $4,500[11].  Adecade later, Cogan had a property value of $10,000.[12] His increase in wealth could have been the result of many factors, such as he did not own any slaves and therefore did not lose property during the war; however, after some digging, I believe that William’s wealth increased because he was a successful business man.[13] Cogan’s Gas and Steam Fitter Establishment appeared to be a well-established company and was advertised throughout the 1860s in both the Local Paper and the Alexandria Gazette. The Cogan’s wealth may have also been an additional reason the family moved around throughout Alexandria.

The following images are samples of William Cogan’s advertisements in the local papers.

 

 

 

 

[1] Charlotte Erikson, Invisible Immigrants: The Adaption of English and Scottish Immigrants in Nineteenth Century America (Coral Gables: University of Miami Press, 1972).

[2] 1860 U. S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, William Cogan, digital image, accessed September 15, 2016. Ancestry.com

[3] Ibid.

[4] ”William Cogan,” Voting Viva Voce. http://sociallogic.iath.virginia.edu/node/14?name=William%20Cogan&sex=1&race=1&bg=4&dta_set=alex_people&contains=1. (accessed September 21, 2016).

[5] General Victoria Passenger Manifest; Ancestry.com. New York, Passenger Lists, 1820-1957,  William Cogan, digital image, accessed September 15, 2016. Ancestry.com.

[6] 1853 Marriage Certificate; Ancestry.com. Virginia, Select Marriages, 1785-1940.  William Cogan and Virginia Barton, digital image, accessed September 16, 2016. Ancestry.com.

[7] 1860 U.S. Census, Alexandria; and DeBats, Voting Viva Voce

[8] 1880 U. S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, William Cogan, digital image, accessed September 15, 2016, Ancestry.com.

[9] 1900 U. S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Virginia Cogan, digital image, accessed September 15, 2016, Ancestry.com.

[10] 1912 Alexandria City Directory; U.S. City Directories, 1822-1995. Virginia Cogan, digital image, accessed September 16, 2016.  Ancestry.com.

[11] 1860 U.S. Census, Alexandria

[12] 1870 U. S. Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, William Cogan, digital image, accessed September 15, 2016, Ancestry.com.

[13] DeBats, Voting Viva Voce.

[14] “William Cogan’s Gas and Steam Fitting Establishment,” The Local News [Alexandria, VA], January 24, 1862, 1; Image provided by: Library of Virginia;  Richmond, VA. Accessed through chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. (Accessed September 21, 2016).

[15] “Gas and Steam Fitting,” Alexandria Gazette (Alexandria, VA), January 05, 1866, 1; Image provided by Library of Virginia; Richmond, VA. Accessed through chroniclingamerica.loc.gov. (Accessed September 21, 2016).

As the civil war began to pick up and worsen in the 1980s Salvadorans began fleeing the country in large numbers. One of the biggest struggles of Salvadorans in Alexandria and across America was the fact that they were in large denied refugee status as well as political asylum. This can be attributed to the fact that the U.S. government in the 80s was biased against refugees fleeing governments then supported by the U.S. In contrast migrants fleeing communist governments were granted refugee status as well as political asylum in much higher percentages. This caused Salvadoran to be a largely undocumented or “illegal” group of immigrants, much more so than typical immigrant groups.

The above image is how a refugee is defined under the 1980 Refugee Act. Clearly after reading about the Salvadoran civil war these many Salvadorans living in the Alexandria area fit this description. Despite this, Salvadorans were rarely given the benefits of refugee status such as medical care, housing assistance, and job training that was afforded to groups like Vietnamese and Cubans.[1] The result of not being treated as refugees was that the Salvadoran population was pushed underground, forced to live and work while trying to avoid the INS for fear of being deported.

These graphs illustrate the inequality present in the U.S. government’s treatment of Salvadoran refugees. Political asylum is supposed to be for people wishing to obtain legal status in the United States for a period of time because of a fear for returning home. Salvadorans deported by the U.S. government were being sent directly back into the hellish war that they had originally fled from. The comparison to people fleeing governments which the U.S. was opposed to in the the 80s, such as Poland and Iran, shows how interconnected refugee status and possibly obtaining political asylum was tied into politics for the U.S. government during this time.[2]

A common argument against the case of undocumented Salvadorans in the U.S. was that they were actually economic migrants, simply moving to the U.S. in search of a better life. This sentiment was shared by officials of the U.S. Department of State and the department of Justice.[3] Senator Alan Simpson was one of the main proponents of this argument, claiming the situation had improved greatly in El Salvador and that these Salvadorans had no real fear of persecution at home.[4] This argument was of course incorrect, as the horrors of the Salvadoran civil war continued throughout the 80s and the political climate was still extremely dangerous for returning deportees. Also it is important to note the case was not that American officials did not realize the bloodshed was still occuring, they simply wished to turn a blind eye and play it down to the public. This fight over whether or not to deport undocumented Salvadorans or to grant them political asylum continued throughout the 80s with no real improvement on the situation until 1991.

Salvadorans battle for fair treatment received great attention in U.S. politics and was addressed by a number of settlements and suits including American Baptist Churches vs. Thornburgh which began in 1985 when a group of religious organizations and advocacy groups sued the INS for their unfair treatment of Salvadoran and Guatemalan refugees attempting to receive asylum. The suit was settled in 1991 and improved policy on this subject, but still was quite late considering the worst of the war occurred throughout the 80s. This settlement allowed for Salvadorans to stay in the U.S. a bit longer with the ability to reapply for asylum afterwards, although at this point so many were already living in Alexandria with their families that going back was not as attractive an option, many have been here for almost a decade at that point.

Realizing these facts about Salvadoran migrants goes to show why the vast majority were undocumented and struggled because of it. Furthermore the “illegal” status put on these migrants was by and large the result of U.S. politics regarding the conflict in their homeland, which the U.S. also had a hand in creating. Despite nearly half a million Salvadorans entering our country during the 80s, if not more, the Department of Homeland Security on lists 130,000 as becoming legal residents. When you realize this number includes those naturalized by the IRCA, which will be discussed next, one can see how much of a problem this was for our Salvadoran community. Salvadorans struggle to become documented began with this basic issue of them not being treated as the refugees that they were, however unfortunately this was not their only problem as further immigration laws continued to make difficulties for Salvadoran immigrants.

Next: IRCA

[1]- Carlos Cordova, The Salvadoran Americans, (London: Greenwood Press, 2005), 34.

[2]- Terry Repak, Waiting on Washington, (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995), 17.

[3]- William Stanley, “Economic Migrants or Refugees from Violence?” Latin American Research Review 22, no. 1 (1987), accessed December 8, 2015, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2503545?&seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents.

[4]- Karlyn Barker and Eric Pianin, “The Wait for Reprieve or Return: Area Salvadorans Weigh Future as Deportation Delay is Debated,” Washington Post , March 4, 1988, accessed December 9, 2015, http://search.proquest.com/docview/139855481?accountid=12299.