English learners in the United States public school system are invisible, unwelcome, and often mistreated. As the nation becomes more polarized and immigrants are a popular political point of discussion, educators may wonder if their English Language Learner (ELL) students will get the appropriate attention and materials they need to succeed. In Alexandria, however, programs have been established to protect, promote, and even advocate the cultures of their immigrant communities. As of the last U.S. Census in 2010, Alexandria’s population consisted of 16.1% Latinos.[1] This is a slight increase from the 2000 U.S. Census, with a 14.7% Latino population in Alexandria.[2] Legislation was put into effect to not only protect an ELL student’s mother tongue but to promote the maintenance of their culture. The Bilingual Education Act of 1968 states that students were to “be taught in their native languages while they learned English.”[3] The reality, however, is that ELL programs, usually called English as a Second Language (ESL) or English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL), fail to assist these students in any meaningful way. In the 1990s a Bolivian immigrant, Heidi Flores at T.C. Williams High School in Alexandria, specifically addressed a common sentiment of ELL students that resonates to this day: isolation.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, EDFacts file 141, Data Group 678, extracted November 3, 2015, accessed November 11, 2016.

With a growing immigrant population, Spanish is not the only language ELL programs are servicing. However, Spanish-speaking students are the largest group of ELL students in the U.S. at 76.5% in the 2013-2014 school year with 3,770,816 students nationally.[4] In fact, there are more Spanish speakers in the United States than Spain.[5] Currently, Alexandria City Public Schools have a 36% Latino population.[6] In April 2015, T.C. Williams had over one thousand Latino students enrolled at their high school, making up 41% of the school’s demographic, a higher average than the city generally.[7] Yet, ELL students still feel unwelcome, stating that despite the ELL program at T.C. Williams being effective, they felt insignificant and unaccepted in the large school.[8] Most Bolivian immigrants are economic immigrants and many non-Western European immigrants that come to the United States experience downward mobility.[9] The result is that the ELL students in the U.S. have parents who work long hours or multiple jobs to make ends.[10] Moreover, many send remittances back to family in Bolivia, which forced them to live in low-income and often high-crime neighborhoods.[11] This absence of their parents can lead to gang involvement.[12]While certain gangs are generally known to associate with specific nationalities, such as MS-13 consisting primarily of Salvadoran immigrants, they actually are inclusive of other Latinos.[13] Flores explained how unwelcome the Latino students felt at T.C. Williams in the 1990s, stating that bullying ranged from attacking people for their accents to name-calling.[14] Joining a gang was a means of having family and community that some lacked at home and at school. While some find positive organizations, like Junior ROTC, others do not communicate with their teachers or school counselors that they lack appropriate clothes, access to food, and are being bullied.[15] This could partially be due to the fact that they may not be receiving what they need to learn English, and some lack the ability to read and write in Spanish as well.[16]

“ACPS Monthly Enrollment Data: April 2016,” Alexandria City Public Schools, April 2016, accessed November 19, 2016, http://www.acps.k12.va.us/enrollment-monthly-201604.pdf.

While certain gangs are generally known to associate with specific nationalities, such as MS-13 consisting of Salvadoran immigrants, they actually are inclusive of other Latinos.[13] Flores explained how unwelcome the Latino students felt at T.C. Williams in the 1990s, stating that bullying ranged from attacking people for their accents to name-calling.[14] Joining a gang was a means of having family and community that some lacked at home and at school. While some find positive organizations, like Junior ROTC, others do not communicate with their teachers or school counselors that they lack appropriate clothes, access to food, and are being bullied.[15] This could partially be due to the fact that they may not be receiving what they need to learn English, and some lack the ability to read and write in Spanish as well.[16]

Hope J. Gibbs, “T.C. Williams High School JROTC,” digital image, Alexandria News, May 15, 2008, accessed November 20, 2016, http://alexandrianews.org/2008/other-news/second-span-of-woodrow-wilson-bridge-dedicated/1166/.

Studies have shown that language acquisition can take five to seven years, but this can only occur with effective ELL instruction.[17] Bolivian immigrants, like most children of immigrants from non-English speaking countries, are raised in homes where English is not spoken, leaving both content and language learning to their teachers.[18] Afterward, many of the students teach their parents English or act as a translator because Spanish-speaking immigrants largely maintained their native tongue, particularly in comparison to other groups of immigrants.[19] The Bilingual Education Act was the first step at acknowledging a need to teach ELL students in both English and in Spanish.Northern Virginia is unique, however. With their growing Latino population, they chose to maintain its diversity with programs outside of schools as well. One such program is Edu-Futuro. The slogan for Edu-Futuro reads “Educación para nuestro futuro,” meaning education for our future and their motto reads “Empowering Students. Engaging Parents. Transforming Communities.”[20] This program aims to help Bolivian immigrants learn skills, culture, and advocate for other themselves, their families, and the growing community. They were “recognized as a Bright Spot in Hispanic Education by the White House Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanics on September 15, 2015” because of their work to better educate the Latino community.[21] Ultimately, this program and ones like it may be able to curb the isolation ELL students feel and show teachers how to reach out to these students. Had Flores and the students she spoke for in the 1990s had access to a program like this they could have found the community they desired to escape the isolation of their school.

Jane Hill and Kathleen Flynn, “The Stages of Second Language Acquisition,” in Classroom Instruction That Works with English Language Learners (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2006), 15.

Northern Virginia is unique, however. With their growing Latino population, they chose to maintain its diversity with programs outside of schools as well. One such program is Edu-Futuro. The slogan for Edu-Futuro reads “Educación para nuestro futuro,” meaning education for our future and their motto reads “Empowering Students. Engaging Parents. Transforming Communities.”[20] This program aims to help Bolivian immigrants learn skills, culture, and advocate for other themselves, their families, and the growing community. They were “recognized as a Bright Spot in Hispanic Education by the White House Initiative on Educational Excellence for Hispanics on September 15, 2015” because of their work to better educate the Latino community.[21] Ultimately, this program and ones like it may be able to curb the isolation ELL students feel and show teachers how to reach out to these students. Had Flores and the students she spoke for in the 1990s had access to a program like this they could have found the community they desired to escape the isolation of their school.

Endnotes

1. 2010 U.S. Federal Census: Community Facts; Hispanic or Latino, Alexandria, Virginia, American Fact Finder, digital image, accessed November 8, 2016, http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/community_facts.xhtml.
2. 2000 U.S. Federal Census: Community Facts; Hispanic or Latino, Alexandria, Virginia, American Fact Finder, digital image, accessed November 8, 2016, http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/community_facts.xhtml.
3. Sara Davis. Powell, “Ethical and Legal Issues in U.S. Schools,” in Your Introduction to Education: Explorations in Teaching, 3rd ed. (Boston: Pearson, 2012), 286.
4. “English Language Learners in Public Schools,” National Center for Education Statistics, May 2016, accessed November 08, 2016, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgf.asp.
5. Chris Perez, “Us Has More Spanish Speakers Than Spain,” New York Post, June 29, 2015, accessed November 10, 2016, http://nypost.com/2015/06/29/us-has-more-spanish-speakers-than-spain/.
6. “Fast Facts: Student Demographics,” Alexandria City Public Schools, September 30, 2015, accessed November 19, 2016, http://www.acps.k12.va.us/fastfact.php.
7. “ACPS Monthly Enrollment Data: April 2016,” Alexandria City Public Schools, April 2016, accessed November 19, 2016, http://www.acps.k12.va.us/enrollment-monthly-201604.pdf.
8. Pamela Constable, “A New Accent On Education: Rise of Immigrants Means Schools Must Navigate a Sea of Diversity,” The Washington Post, April 2, 1995.
9. Tom Gjelten, A Nation of Nations: A Great American Immigration Story(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015), 22-25.
10. Gjelten, A Nation of Nations, 51-52.
11. Ibid.
12. Gjelten, A Nation of Nations, 298-299.
13. Patrick Welsh, “Lure of the Latino Gang: When Immigrant Students Find Poverty, Isolation and a Life of Violence,” The Washington Post, March 26, 1995.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Jane Hill and Kathleen Flynn, “The Stages of Second Language Acquisition,” in Classroom Instruction That Works with English Language Learners (Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2006), 15.
18. Hill and Flynn, “The Stages of Second Language Acquisition,” in Classroom Instruction That Works with English Language Learners, xii-xiii.
19. Gjelten, A Nation of Nations, 329.
20. “Bright Spot in Hispanic Education,” Edu-Futuro, accessed November 10, 2016, http://www.edu-futuro.org/new-page-1/.
21. Ibid.

Rhoda Worku’s Caboose Café in the Del Rey neighborhood of Alexandria opened a little over a decade ago in 2004. The name alone is an homage to the neighborhood’s former train station where a caboose still sits.[1] Worku did not initially include Ethiopian food on her menu, but catered to the palate of her non-Ethiopian patrons from the neighborhood.[2] Afterward, she was asked to include Ethiopian staples, such as injera, by vegetarians from the local yoga studio who sought out the healthy Ethiopian dishes.[3] Alexandria is known for its diversity of ethnic businesses and the large population of Ethiopian immigrants; however, few Ethiopians live in or near the Del Ray neighborhood.

“Caboose Cafe Logo,” digital image, Caboose Cafe, 2013, accessed October 28, 2016, http://caboose-cafe.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/caboose-logo-update.png.

Ethiopian businesses certainly are not hiding their ethnic appeal. It is commonplace for these businesses to include either “Ethio” or “Ethiopian” on their English signage and the Caboose Café is no different.[4] Their window cling reads out their offerings in fun fonts and different sizes, but in clear bold type “Authentic Ethiopian.”[5] A glance at the menu, shows exactly that healthful preference those yogis were looking for while showing the diverse community the Caboose Café is located in. The breakfast menu has the traditional sandwiches, waffles, and toast. The omelets come in the variety of Greek, Farmers, California, and Smoked Salmon.[6] The option that stands out here is the Greek option because the Caboose is advertised as an Ethiopian joint. However, in her oral history, Worku discusses her integration into the diverse Alexandria community, which included several years of employment at Bread and Chocolate in Alexandria. This business was owned by co-owned by two immigrants, one Greek and the other Swiss.[7] Though she had not been cooking there, it is possible that exposure to the culture and dishes. The non-Ethiopian dishes continue in the lunch menu with items like the Greek and ceviche salads, the Taste of the Mediterranean sandwich, and an array of paninis and quiches.[8] The tides turn, however, on the dinner menu.

“Caboose Cafe Injera,” digital image, Caboose Cafe, 2013, accessed October 28, 2016, http://caboose-cafe.com/wp-content/gallery/caboose-gallery-1/thumbs/thumbs_dish_gkp5423rgb.jpg.

Though Ethiopian food is found on both the both of the Caboose’s menus, the dinner menu specifically has a section of Ethiopian dishes. Moreover, Rhoda Worku’s dinner menu is truly a taste of Ethiopian cuisine and culture. An ‘R’ adorns her staples, and the second page presents a variety of dishes that an unfamiliar tongue can only guess at pronouncing correctly. Luckily, the menu comes with an English description of each meal and, equally as interestingly, the bottom of the menu presents an English to Amharic dictionary.[9] Amharic was the language Worku spoke growing up in Ethiopia’s capital of Addis Ababa. However, her school was run by British Presbyterian missionaries, teaching her British English.[10] Interestingly, not a single British staple such as; Beef Wellington, pork pie, or Yorkshire Pudding made it to Worku’s menu. Nevertheless, a decade of business with a loyal local customer base and rave reviews on Yelp show that her diverse menu and welcoming atmosphere works.[11]

“Caboose Cafe Breakfast Muffins,” digital image, Caboose Cafe, 2013, accessed October 28, 2016, http://caboose-cafe.com/wp-content/gallery/caboose-gallery-1/thumbs/thumbs_cdr-kitchen-1-2.jpg.

The success of the Caboose Café could, to the untrained and unquestioning eye, be due to the large Ethiopian community in Alexandria. Nationally speaking, this area of the US hosts the largest Ethiopian community of all African immigrants at roughly twenty-five percent.[12] However, Worku’s restaurant caters to the diverse community first and later implemented her native dishes at the request of non-Ethiopian health enthusiasts. Worku’s desire to encourage the integration of Ethiopian culture into the community does not stop at the doors of the Caboose Café. Worku has discussed the importance of hospitality to the Ethiopian community and there is a brief mention of her partaking in a program with Girl Scouts as a representative of the Ethiopian community, though she does not feel it is a title she holds permanently.[13] This business is just as diverse as its community and, undoubtedly the food and hospitality are the reason for its success in spite of the significant increase in the cost of living in the area which could easily lead to an exodus of minorities.

“Caboose Cafe Lunch Sandwich,” digital image, Caboose Cafe, 2013, accessed October 28, 2016, http://caboose-cafe.com/wp-content/gallery/caboose-gallery-1/thumbs/thumbs_cdr-kitchen-25.jpg.

Endnotes

1. Interview with Rhoda Worku, by Krystyn Moon, Immigrant Alexandria: Past, Present, Future, May 20, 2015, 7-9.
2. Interview with Rhoda Worku, by Krystyn Moon, Immigrant Alexandria: Past, Present, Future, May 20, 2015, 13.
3. Interview with Rhoda Worku, by Krystyn Moon, Immigrant Alexandria: Past, Present, Future, May 20, 2015, 13.
4. Elizabeth Chacko, “Ethiopian Ethos and the Making of Ethnic Places in the Washington Metropolitan Area,” Journal of Cultural Geography20, no. 2 (July 2003): 33.
5. Paulette Paglia, “Caboose Cafe,” digital image, Google Maps Images, September 2016, accessed October 28, 2016, https://www.google.com.ezproxy.umw.edu/maps/uv?hl=en&pb=!1s0x89b7b12030d432cb%3A0x25bf840a08c917ac!2m13!2m2!1i80!2i80!3m1!2i20!16m7!1b1!2m2!1m1!1e1!2m2!1m1!1e3!3m1!7e115!4s%2Fmaps%2Fplace%2Fcaboose%2Bcafe%2Balexandria%2F%4038.827512%2C-77.058905%2C3a%2C75y%2C92.31h%2C90t%2Fdata%3D*213m4*211e1*213m2*211s7LQef-C0DdXzeiuDPwSF_g*212e0*214m2*213m1*211s0x0%3A0x25bf840a08c917ac!5scaboose%20cafe%20alexandria%20-%20Google%20Search&imagekey=!1e3!2s-UGQsXu7EM2o%2FV9A-ax6K3NI%2FAAAAAAAAGlA%2FRwegXWanduQ3hh6I9QVuUzJiTyNqvlDEwCLIB&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiY5arwvfzPAhUJFj4KHbwCAeUQpx8IeTAM.
6. Rhoda Worku, “Caboose Cafe: Breakfast Menu, Lunch Menu,” 1, accessed October 28, 2016, http://caboose-cafe.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/CC17-BreakfastLunch_full-2015_05-5-1.pdf.
7. Interview with Rhoda Worku, by Krystyn Moon, Immigrant Alexandria: Past, Present, Future, May 20, 2015, 7-8.
8. Rhoda Worku, “Caboose Cafe: Breakfast Menu, Lunch Menu,” 2, accessed October 28, 2016, http://caboose-cafe.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/CC17-BreakfastLunch_full-2015_05-5-1.pdf.
9. Rhoda Worku, “Caboose Cafe: Dinner Menu,” 2, accessed October 28, 2016, http://caboose-cafe.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Caboose-Dinner-Menu.finalprint.pdf.
10. Rhoda Worku, “Caboose Cafe: Dinner Menu,” 2, accessed October 28, 2016, http://caboose-cafe.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/Caboose-Dinner-Menu.finalprint.pdf.
11. Interview with Rhoda Worku, by Krystyn Moon, Immigrant Alexandria: Past, Present, Future, May 20, 2015, 13.; “Caboose Cafe: Bakeries, Coffee & Tea, Ethiopian,” Yelp, accessed October 28, 2016, https://www.yelp.com/biz/caboose-cafe-alexandria-4.
12. Elizabeth Chacko, “Identity and Assimilation Among Young Ethiopian Immigrants in Metropolitan Washington,” Geographical Review93, no. 4 (October 2003): 491.
13. Interview with Rhoda Worku, by Krystyn Moon, Immigrant Alexandria: Past, Present, Future, May 20, 2015, 13-14.

In 1920, the Rhecche family appeared on the U.S. Census for Alexandria, Virginia.[1] Thomas Louis, the head of the household, was around thirty years old and an Italian immigrant. [2] His wife, Annie Mae, née Roberts, was roughly thirteen years younger than him at the age of eighteen.[3] At the time, they were renting their home, which doubled as the location of their shoemaking business, with another Italian immigrant, Bujano Gomdanico, and their two toddlers, Rosalie and Thomas Joseph, ages two and three respectively.[4] There are some discrepancies between the birthplace and parentage of Thomas Louis’ wife and children on this census; however, other records clarify that they are all born in Virginia, and Annie Mae’s parents were not Italian immigrants.[5]

1920 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T625-1877, Page 16B, Enumeration District: 8, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

The Rhecche family had undergone some fascinating changes from 1920 to 1940. First, they had purchased a home, where they still hosted their shoemaking business, at 1118 King Street just a few blocks away from where they rented in 1920.[6] Around 1926, Thomas and Annie had their third child, Mary E. Rhecche.[7] Additionally, the Rhecches no longer had a renter, but their eldest daughter had married a man from West Virginia, Thurlow L. Wilson.[8] Though there was no income listed on the 1940 U.S. Census for the Rhecche family,  their home’s value was listed as $3,400.[9]

1940 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T627-4304, Page 15A, Enumeration District: 101-114, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.archives.com/.

In many ways, Thomas Louis Rhecche was quite different from other Italian immigrants. First, his was an artisan, and owned his own business as a shoemaker.[10] Second, he lived in Ward 4, where few other Italians lived (most were clustered in Ward 3).[11] Third, he had married an American and not a fellow Italian immigrant or the daughter of Italian immigrants.[12] Finally, he pursued naturalized citizenship.[13]

Despite not being a citizen in 1920, Thomas Louis’ World War I draft card shows that he had already pledged his allegiance to the U.S. When answering his country of affiliation, he penned in “U.S.A.”[14] Under the section questioning his citizenship status, Thomas Louis’ handwriting is slightly illegible; however, it appears to read that he had filed for naturalization.[15] This is interesting because the date of registration was June 5, 1917, three years before the census in which he was still not naturalized.[16] It is possible that this delay could have occurred because of the war or that, like today, the process was rigorous and time consuming. It is also worth noting that despite filing out draft cards for both World War I and World War II, Thomas Louis participated in neither. On the World War I draft card, he requested a draft exemption due to his position as the sole financial supporter of his wife and child.[17] Thomas Louis’ World War II draft registration fell into the category of the “Fourth Registration,” which was also known as the “old man’s registration” for its recruitment of men between the ages of forty-five and sixty-four.[18] Interestingly, the two draft cards claim two different birthplaces. The first claims Rome and the second a smaller town called Segni, in the mountains just south of Rome.[19] Another interesting fact about the Rhecche family is that, even though Thomas Louis did not serve, his eldest daughter, Rosalie, had enlisted in June 1945 with the USArmy. [20]

U.S. World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, Alexandria, Virginia, National Archives and Records Administration: M1509, Roll: 1984206, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

U.S. World War II Draft Registration Cards, Fourth Registration for Virginia, April 27, 1942, The National Archives at St. Louis, St. Louis Missouri, NAI Number: 563732, Record Group: 147, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.

Rosalie’s registration is also unique because she was married in 1939, as indicated by both divorce records and the 1940 U.S.Census.[21] Additionally, she appears to have had at least once child by around 1937, Michael Lavern Wilson.[22] However, the dates may be incorrect as he was not listed on the 1940 U.S. Census. [23] Though her stint in the military was short, just over a year, she retired as a Private First Class and was buried at Quantico National Cemetery.[24] Ironically, she was granted a divorce from Thurlow L. Wilson in 1972 after two years of separation, but he was still listed as her husband on her grave.[25]

U.S. Veterans Gravesites, ca. 1775-2006, National Cemetery Administration, Quantico National Cemetery, Section 17, Site 647, PFC Rosalie Wilson, US Army, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.findagrave.com/.

The foremost scholar on Italian immigration, Donna R. Gabbacia, discusses the many waves of Italian immigration in Italy’s Many Diasporas. Thomas Rhecche falls into her third diasporic wave of “millions of laborers migrating in and out of Italy between 1870 and 1940.” [26] Though there are no apparent records of when and where he arrived in the U.S., the previously noted records do indicate that he falls into this category by his birthday and birthplace, his skilled occupation, and how he settled in Alexandria, Virginia and did not return to Italy.[27] It is also supported by his burial at Saint Mary’s Catholic Church with his wife and son.[28] The Rhecche family’s loyalties were quickly aligned to the U.S., as seen by military service and Thomas Rhecche’s early application for naturalization. The Rhecche family, however, is set apart from some of the other Italian immigrants mentioned in Gabaccia’s work. She addressed a disenchantment with the US, calling it the “bitter land” and a place of that made Italians and Italian-Americans feel “uneasy.”[29] This lack of comfort, plus their goal to return home, often ensure that many Italian men returned home.  For Rhecche, that was not the case.

Saint Mary’s Catholic Church Cemetery, Alexandria, Virginia, Memorial No.: 103362968, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.findagrave.com/.

Endnotes

1. 1920 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T625-1877, Page 16B, Enumeration District: 8, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. Ibid. Note that ‘Bujano’ is an approximation and the name could be Bujans or even Bryano.
5. 1920 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T625-1877, Page 16B, Enumeration District: 8, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.; 1940 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T627-4304, Page 15A, Enumeration District: 101-114, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.archives.com/.; Virginia Death Records, 1912-2014, Virginia Department of Health, Richmond, Virginia, Certificate of Death: Annie Mae Rhecche, accessed October 11, 2016, http://ancestory.com/.
6. 1940 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T627-4304, Page 15A, Enumeration District: 101-114, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.archives.com/.
7. Ibid.
8. Ibid.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. 1920 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T625-1877, Page 16B, Enumeration District: 8, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.; 1940 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T627-4304, Page 15A, Enumeration District: 101-114, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.archives.com/.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. U.S. World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, Alexandria, Virginia, National Archives and Records Administration: M1509, Roll: 1984206, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.
15. Ibid.
16. U.S. World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, Alexandria, Virginia, National Archives and Records Administration: M1509, Roll: 1984206, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.; 1920 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T625-1877, Page 16B, Enumeration District: 8, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.
17. U.S. World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, Alexandria, Virginia, National Archives and Records Administration: M1509, Roll: 1984206, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.
18. U.S. World War II Draft Registration Cards, Fourth Registration for Virginia, April 27, 1942, The National Archives at St. Louis, St. Louis Missouri, NAI Number: 563732, Record Group: 147, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.
19. U.S. World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, Alexandria, Virginia, National Archives and Records Administration: M1509, Roll: 1984206, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.; U.S. World War II Draft Registration Cards, Fourth Registration for Virginia, April 27, 1942, The National Archives at St. Louis, St. Louis Missouri, NAI Number: 563732, Record Group: 147, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.; Segni is roughly forty miles south Rome.
20. U.S. Veterans Gravesites, ca. 1775-2006, National Cemetery Administration, Quantico National Cemetery, Section 17, Site 647, PFC Rosalie Wilson, US Army, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.findagrave.com/.
21. Virginia Divorce Records, 1918-2014, Virginia Department of Health, Richmond, Virginia, State File No.: 72-002031, for Rosalie Rhecche and Thurlow Wilson, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestory.com/.; 1940 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T627-4304, Page 15A, Enumeration District: 101-114, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.archives.com/.
22. Virginia Marriage Records, 1936-2014, Virginia Department of Health, Richmond, Virginia, State File No.: 73-009362, for Michael Wilson and Charlotte Houtz, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestory.com/.
23. 1940 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T627-4304, Page 15A, Enumeration District: 101-114, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.archives.com/.
24. U.S. Veterans Gravesites, ca. 1775-2006, National Cemetery Administration, Quantico National Cemetery, Section 17, Site 647, PFC Rosalie Wilson, US Army, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.findagrave.com/.
25. Virginia Divorce Records, 1918-2014, Virginia Department of Health, Richmond, Virginia, State File No.: 72-002031, for Rosalie Rhecche and Thurlow Wilson, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestory.com/.; S. Veterans Gravesites, ca. 1775-2006, National Cemetery Administration, Quantico National Cemetery, Section 17, Site 647, PFC Rosalie Wilson, US Army, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.findagrave.com/.
26. Donna R. Gabaccia, Italy’s Many Diasporas (London: UCL Press, 2000), 12.
27. 1920 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T625-1877, Page 16B, Enumeration District: 8, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.; 1940 U. S. Federal Census (Population Schedule), Alexandria, Virginia, Roll: T627-4304, Page 15A, Enumeration District: 101-114, Image 1027, digital image, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.archives.com/.; S. World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, Alexandria, Virginia, National Archives and Records Administration: M1509, Roll: 1984206, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.; U.S. World War II Draft Registration Cards, Fourth Registration for Virginia, April 27, 1942, The National Archives at St. Louis, St. Louis Missouri, NAI Number: 563732, Record Group: 147, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.ancestry.com/.
28. “Thomas L Rhecche”, Saint Mary’s Catholic Church Cemetery, Alexandria, Virginia, Memorial No.: 103362968, accessed October 11, 2016, http://www.findagrave.com/.
29. Gabaccia, 184-185.
30. Gabaccia, 184-185, 190.