When comparing the four U.S. Censuses from 1850 through 1880, there were not large numbers of Irish immigrant women living in Alexandria, Virginia at first. In 1850, there were only 85 females; however, there were 345 females recorded ten years later. This surge in the number of Irish immigrant women was tied to jobs, not necessarily for their fathers or husbands, but for themselves.

The 1850 U.S. Census does not give the occupations that women held. 1860 was the first year the census kept track of female occupations, along with how much money they had. Many of the positions they filled were jobs that were extensions of what was seen as “women’s work”– washerwomen, domestics, and seamstresses.

In the 1870 U.S. Census, a handful of women were listed to be clerks in stores and grocers. 49 Irish immigrant women would be keeping house; these women were married and were at home taking care of their family.  12 women had “at home” written next to their names, meaning that they lived with their families though they were not in charge of caring for them. At least one individual inherited money.  In 1870, Margaret Purcell, married to Richard, had $2,000 next to her name.

In the 1880 U.S. Census, almost every grown woman either had a job or, if married, kept house. Whether in their own home or someone else’s, Irish immigrant women worked in some form of domestic labor. A few had other jobs, such as small business owners.

From 1850-1880, information for around 600 Irish immigrant women living in Alexandria, Virginia was collected.  Many of these women–young and single–worked to support themselves.  Older, married women, however, tended to care for their families.  A few outliers owned their own businesses, worked in stores, or had large amounts of property.

A close analysis of the US Census for Alexandria, Virginia from 1850-1880 points to a variety of occupations held by Irish immigrants. The following table lists the number of Irish immigrants with the following occupations:¹

Irish Immigrant Occupations in Alexandria, Virginia, 1850s-1880s

Occupation	# of Irish immigrants listed with occupation in 1850	In 1860	In 1870	In 1880
laborer	45	219	17	3
domestic servant	n/a	32	3	2
grocer/clerk/merchant/shopkeeper	8	17	15	6
Other*	29	101	18	19

* This includes a variety of semiskilled occupations and trades, artisanal work, and professional work (i.e. blacksmiths, silversmiths, tailors, fishermen, farmers, carpenters, etc.).

The numbers above are skewed because more information was reported in the 1860 U.S. Census in comparison to the three other years; there were also many more Irish immigrants in Alexandria in 1860.  Census data from the antebellum period mostly listed Irish immigrant men as laborers. There are several exceptions; for example, in the 1850 US Census, John Richards was listed as a physician with property worth $5000.² By 1860, there was a small yet noticeable spike in the number of Irish immigrants who worked as grocers, shopkeepers, clerks, or merchants. A large number of Irish immigrants were artisans and craftsmen–blacksmiths, tailors, carpenters, and tanners, among others. Many single, young adult women also were shown as working as domestic servants and seamstresses, particularly in 1860.  No female occupations was included in 1850.³

In the post-war censuses, Irish immigrants moved toward more skilled occupations, trades, small businesses, and white collar professions. One interesting trend are the number of Irish grocers and merchants listed in the 1870 U.S. Census whose property values increased since the last census.  Married Irish women were also noted as keeping house as their occupation, signaling that they no longer worked outside the home or perhaps worked only episodically.

Occupational trends reflect how Irish immigrants melded into the American workforce during the mid-nineteenth century. Starting as unskilled laborers, Irish immigrants–followed by their children and grandchildren–were able to move into more professionalized and skilled work as the century progressed. Irish women, once used to working in order to support themselves and their families, found themselves assuming the role of wife and mother after marriage. Irish workers’ shifting roles in Alexandria’s economy indicates their status as “Americanized” citizens.

¹ Krystyn R. Moon, “1850-1880 US Census Data for Alexandria, Virginia,” Unpublished Spreadsheets (2014).

^{2 “}1850 US Census Data for Alexandria, Virginia.”

³ “1860 US Census Data for Alexandria, Virginia.”

For members of any immigrant group, one of the most important distinctions for an individual is where they work.  This sentiment was no different for Irish immigrants in the U.S. South in the mid-to-late 19th century.  What is astonishing is how quickly and to what extent Irish occupations transformed in a period of only thirty years.  While not all Irish worked, it can be said that there is a visible shift from unskilled work to artisanal jobs, small business ownership, and even white-collar positions over the period from 1850 to 1880. In the 1850 U.S. Census, many Irish-born men were listed simply as laborers, but by 1880, they were moving into the middle classes.  Caution must be taken, however, when looking at this data. For the most part, those immigrants present in the 1850 U.S. Census were absent in later ones for Alexandria.  Still, by looking at the number of Irish-born within each type of occupation, it is possible to see some upward mobility among these immigrants.

The 1850 U.S. Census for Alexandria shows a large number of Irish immigrant men listed simply as “laborers.”  There are also a few outliers with jobs such as “merchant,” “blacksmith,” or “physician.” Unfortunately, due to the term being used rather loosely, it is impossible to know exactly what type of laborers these men were; however, based on other histories of Alexandria, they probably worked on the newly constructed canal or in railroad construction.  Sadly, women’s jobs were not recorded, so it is impossible to know exactly what percentage of women worked outside the home or episodically through the census.  In Irish in the South, David T. Gleeson contends that in other areas of the South, a handful of Irish women could get jobs as teachers, but an overwhelming majority worked as domestics.¹

Irish Immigrant Occupations in Alexandria, Virginia based on the 1850 U.S. Census*

Occupation	Number	Percentage
Laborer	41	47.12%
Unskilled/Semi-skilled	2	2.3%
Skilled/Artisan	21	24.14%
Other	19	21.84%
Unemployed/Unknown	4	4.6%
Total	87	100%

*The occupations listed in the table above and elsewhere in this blog post were based on Gleeson’s research; however, in an effort to maintain simplicity, any job that was not listed as “laborer” and did not directly fall under one of the above categories was listed under “Other.”

In 1860, the jobs were fairly similar; however, a sizable number of grocers appeared in the U.S. Census for the first time.  The number of skilled artisans also increased.  Women’s jobs were also recorded, most of whom worked as domestics.  It is important to consider the fact that the number of Irish immigrants living in Alexandria also increased between 1850 and 1860, so when determining the number of immigrants in each type of job, the percentages are arguably more important than the numbers.

Irish Immigrant Occupations in Alexandria, Virginia based on the 1860 U.S. Census

Occupation	Number	Percentage
Laborer	219 (male); 0 (female)	66.36% (male); 0% (female)
Unskilled/Semi-skilled	19 (male); 0 (female)	5.76% (male); 0% (female)
Skilled/Artisan	44 (male); 0 (female)	13.33% (male); 0% (female)
Domestic	0 (male); 38 (female)	0% (male) 61.3% (female)
Other	48 (male); 16 (female)	14.55% (male); 25.8% (female)
Unemployed/Unknown	0 (male); 8 (female)	0% (male); 12.9% (female)
Total	330% (male); 62% (female)	100% (male); 100% (female)

By the 1870 U.S. Census, the number of Irish-born immigrants living in Alexandria had decreased significantly, most likely because of the Civil War.  Yet, the types of occupations that Irish immigrants held are still important. There are many more women listed as domestics than in 1860, and they outnumber working men.  The number of laborers is about even with skilled artisans, grocers, and professionals.

Irish Immigrant Occupations in Alexandria, Virginia based on the 1870 U.S. Census

Occupation	Number	Percentage
Skilled	4 (male); 0 (female)	12.12% (male); 0% (female)
Unskilled/Semi-skilled	2 (male); 0 (female)	6.06% (male); 0% (female)
Laborer	8 (male); 0 (female)	24.24% (male); 0% (female)
Domestic	0 (male); 32 (female)	0% (male); 76.19% (female)
Other	18 (male); 5 (female)	54.54% (male); 11.9% (female)
Unemployed/Unknown	1 (male); 5 (female)	3.03% (male); 11.9% (female)
Total	33 (male); 42 (female)	100% (male); 100% (female)

Finally, in the 1880 U.S. Census for Alexandria, only five Irish immigrants were listed as laborers, although many others held unskilled occupations that were included in the census. Still, a large number of men held skilled positions, white-collar occupations, or owned a business.  For women, the majority of those who worked outside the home were still domestics.

Irish Immigrant Occupations in Alexandria, Virginia based on the 1880 U.S. Census

	Number	Percentage
Skilled	2 (male); 0 (female)	8.33% (male); 0% (female)
Unskilled/Semi-skilled	1 (male); 0 (female)	4.17% (male); 0% (female)
Laborer	5 (male); 0 (female)	20.83% (male); 0% (female)
Domestic	0 (male); 27 (female)	0% (male); 72.97% (female)
Other	15 (male); 7 (female)	62.5% (male); 18.92% (female)
Unemployed/Unknown	1 (male); 3 (female)	4.17% (male); 8.11% (female)
Total	24 (male); 37 (female)	100% (male); 100% (female)

Although it is difficult to fully analyze the occupations that these immigrants held across several decades, it is still interesting to see how the workforce changed in the mid-nineteenth century.  After the Civil War, fewer than ten percent of male occupations were unskilled, while the percentage of men entering the middle class increased.  Single women working outside the home also continued to expand.  In the end, the changes in occupations listed in the U.S. Census speaks to shifts in the local economy as well as the Irish immigrant population.

1. David T. Gleeson, Irish in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 42.

 

 

 

 

 

Among the mundane data found in the U.S. Census, there are bits of information that are too intriguing for a historian to pass up. That was the case when I found Frederick and Rose Vaccari listed in the 1850 U.S. Census for Alexandria, Virginia.[1] Frederick, who was born in Tuscany, was listed as a “mariner” worth $2,000. Rose, who was four-years older than Frederick, had emigrated from Ireland. Although it is not uncommon for Italian and Irish immigrants to intermarry, finding such a couple in antebellum Alexandria seemed unique.

Based on scant online records, Frederick was a local shipmaster, living in Alexandria by 1830 at present-day 115 Prince Street (then known as 25 Prince Street) on Captain’s Row. In 1833, he was listed as manumitting Ann Berry, a slave whom he had bought from Henry Chatham.[2] That same year, Ann gave birth to a child, Mary Catherine, who was named after one of Vaccari’s daughters. Mary Catherine was supposed to be freed like her mother based on conditions set by a previous owner; however, Mary Catherine was sold to James S. Simpson, an agent for a slave trader. For more information on what happened to Mary Catherine, see the Library of Virginia’s Out of the Box Blog.[3]

Upon further sleuthing, I also discovered the obituary for Rose on July 9, 1886 in the Washington Post (see below) and the headstones for both Frederick and Rose at Saint Mary’s Catholic Church Cemetery in Alexandria.[4] Rose was originally from Belfast, Ireland, and though from the north, she was Catholic.   After her husband’s death in 1858, Rose became a grocer, increasing her family’s property value to $4,120 by 1860. During the Civil War, she remained in Alexandria working as a “merchant” and signing the Oath of Allegiance to the Union. Her brother, Hugh Latham, became mayor after the Civil War from 1866-1868 and then 1869-1872 (he was replaced briefly from 1868-1869 by the military.[5] The Vaccari and Latham families—while Catholic immigrants—were accepted members of Alexandria’s white elite by the mid-nineteenth century.

 

By the 1870 and 1880 U.S. Censuses, Rose had retired from running her store. In 1870, she was still head of her household, although her occupation was “keeping house.” Her property was worth $4,700. Ten years later, she was living with her nephew, R. M. Latham, who married her grand daughter, also named Rose in 1867.[6] He worked as a jeweler and lived on King Street with his family.

Rose died on July 8, 1886 at the age of ninety. In her will, which was contested among her relatives, she divided her property between her two daughters.[7]

No doubt, there is more to the Vaccari story yet to be uncovered!!!

[1] 1850 U.S. Census, Alexandria Virginia; https://archive.org/stream/populationschedu0932unix#page/n691/mode/1up.  Information from the 1860, 1870, and 1880 censuses were also used throughout this post.

[2] “Slave Manumissions in Alexandria Land Records, 1790-1863,” http://www.freedmenscemetery.org/resources/documents/manumissions.shtml (accessed September 17, 2014).

[3] Bari Helms, “12 Years a Slave,” Out of the Box: Notes from the Archives @ the Library of Virginia,” http://www.virginiamemory.com/blogs/out_of_the_box/2013/12/04/12-years-a-slave/ (accessed September 17, 20114).

[4] “Alexandria,” Washington Post July 9, 1886.

[5] “Discovering the 1860s,” Historic Alexandria, City of Alexandria; http://alexandriava.gov/historic/info/default.aspx?id=28414 (accessed September 17, 2014).

[6] “Alexandria Items,” Evening Star (Washington, D.C.) 16 May 1867, 9.

[7] Chancery Cases: Emanuel Francis vs. Rosa C. Latham, et al., Virginia Memory: Chancery Records Index–510-1894-012; http://www.lva.virginia.gov/chancery/case_detail.asp?CFN=510-1894-012 (accessed September 17, 2014).

 

 

In a conversation with someone about Irish immigration, it is unlikely that he or she would see Alexandria, Virginia as a major hub in the mid-nineteenth century. Popular understandings of U.S. immigration history looks at places such as New York City and Boston. This popular narrative completely ignores the presence of the Irish in the South and, in turn, Alexandria. Through an examination of the 1850 U.S. Census, however, one finds that Alexandria did play a role in the lives of several Irish immigrants, both rich and poor.

Alexandria’s 1850 U.S. Census data proves that many immigrants settled there, often in family units with little to no money or property. Out of the eighty-eight family units that included at least one Irish immigrant, the average property value for each “family” was around $1,561. While this may seem like a fair amount of money, $135,000 of the total $137,400 came from only fifteen families. The average property value of the remaining seventy-five households was $32. As the table below illustrates, there is a sizable wealth gap among Irish immigrants. While one-fifth of the family units have a property valued over $2,000, the rest have property valued at $0.

Irish Immigrants’ Wealth in Alexandria Based on the 1850 U.S. Census

Property in Dollars	No. of Irish Families
$0	69
$10-99	0
$100-499	2
$500-999	2
$1,000-1,999	2
$2,000 or more	13
Total Households	88

 

The lack of property among the Irish, as demonstrated in the table above, was also tied to occupations. Despite coming from a mostly agrarian society, an overwhelming majority of Irish immigrants avoided farming and pursued jobs related to local public works projects. As David T. Gleeson explains in his book The Irish in the South, 1815-1877, part of the reasoning for the switch in occupation was the fact that most Irish families did not have the money to run their own farms.¹  They also felt that agriculture was an unreliable occupation and potentially as oppressive as it was in their homeland.² Instead, as the table below demonstrates, a large number of Irish, working age males found in the 1850 U.S. Census had jobs  laborers, probably working on railroad construction or canal building.

Jobs of Working Age Irish Males (16 and Up) in Alexandria, Virginia Based on 1850 U.S. Census

Occupation	Number of Employed Irish
Laborer	40
Tallow Chandler	2
Shoemaker	8
R.R. Contractor*	1
Block and Pump Maker*	2
Farmer/Gardener	4
Blacksmith	2
Carpenter	1
Merchant	4
Coppersmith	1
Baker	1
Cooper	1
Contractor on Canals*	1
Shopkeeper	3
Seaman	1
Clerk in the U.S. House of Representatives	1
Fisherman	1
Himenailmaker???	1
Stone Mason	1
Spinner in Cotton Mill	1
Physician	1
Miller	1
Sale Collector on Canal*	1
Clerk	1
Student	1
Corn Doctor	1
None	4
Not Listed	5
Total:	92

Out of the ninety-two working age Irish males in Alexandria, Virginia listed in the 1850 U.S. Census, a little under half were employed as laborers. Out of the fifty-two men remaining on the table, five men held other positions relating to railroad and canal work, bringing the total to around forty-five and almost half of the total number of working age males.³ As Gleeson and other historians have argued, unskilled and semi-skilled Irish flocked to cities like Alexandria and took whatever work was available, including poor paying, back-breaking labor.

The Irish played an important role in the development of Alexandria, Virginia. Based on the 1850 U.S. Census, one sees a number of poor families migrating to Alexandria and taking whatever jobs were available, most likely on the canal or the railroads. While new waves of immigrants led to other changes in the city’s population, there can be no denying the role that the Irish played in Alexandria in the mid-nineteenth century.

                                                                                                                                                                                         

¹ David T. Gleeson, The Irish in the South, 1815-1877 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), 23.

² Ibid, 38.

³ See the starred occupations on Table 2.